ENVSCI 101 The Global Environment Spring, 2022
Exercise 3 40 points YOUR NAME ____________________
LITHOSPHERE CYCLE
DATE March 10 2022
DUE DATE March 22, 2022
Directions
Please answer all of the questions to the best of your ability. Use the textbook, lecture slides, and the internet as your reference guide.
Part 1: Vocabulary
Use once or two sentences to define the following term. You can use your textbook or the internet as a source.
Mineral =
Lithosphere =
Sedimentary Rock =
Metamorphic Rock =
Igneous Rock =
Magma =
Lava =
Convergent Margin =
Divergent Margin =
Transform Margin =
Subduction =
Pangaea =
Ore=
Depletion time=
Geologic time=
Part 2: General Questions
1. What properties must a substance have to be considered a mineral?
2. Draw a diagram of the structure of the Earth. Be sure to include the inner core, outer core, mantle, asthenosphere, and crust.
3. Describe the Rock Cycle. A diagram can be used in addition to your description. Be sure to include the 3 major types of rocks.
4. What is the driving force behind the Earth’s plates moving? Draw a diagram of this process including the asthenosphere, crustal plates, and convective cells.
5. Draw a diagram of the three types of convergent boundaries (ocean-ocean, ocean-continent, continent-continent). Be sure to include the landscape feature(s) associated with each (i.e. mountains, volcanoes, trenches, island arc chains). Also provide a real world example of where each occurs.
Page 1 of 9
Urbanization
Lecture 8
More Than Half of the World’s People Live in Urban
Areas
” Urbanization
” Creation and growth of urban and suburban
areas
55% of people live in such areas
” Urban growth
” Rate of increase of urban populations
” Immigration from rural areas
” Pushed from rural areas to urban areas
” Pulled to urban areas from rural areas
Three Major Urban Trends
” Three major trends
” Proportion of global population living in urban areas is
increasing
” Number and sizes of urban areas are increasing
” Megacities: more than 10 million residents
” Hypercities: more than 20 million residents
” Poverty is becoming increasingly urbanized
” Mostly in less-developed countries
Three Major Urban Trends
Urbanization in the United States
” Three phases between 1800 and 2015
” Migration from rural areas to large
central cities
” Migration from large central cities to
suburbs and smaller cities
” Migration from North and East to South
and West
” Aging infrastructure
” Deteriorating services
Urban Sprawl
” Urban sprawl
” Low-density development on the
edges of cities and towns
” Contributing factors to U.S. urban sprawl
” Abundant, affordable land
” Automobiles
” Federal and state funding of highways
” Inadequate urban planning
Urban Sprawl
” Suburban sprawl destroys forests, wetlands,
and cropland
” Forces people to drive almost
everywhere
” Contributed to economic deaths of many
central cities
Urbanization Has Advantages
” Cities
” Centers of economic development,
innovation, education, technological
advances, social and cultural diversity,
and jobs
” Better medical care than rural areas
” Recycling economically feasible
” Reduce stress on wildlife habitats
” Mass transportation typically available
Urbanization Has Disadvantages
” Large ecological footprints
”Consume 75% of the world’s resources
” Lack of vegetation
” Water problems
”Runoff, flooding, wetland degradation
” Pollution and health problems
”Air and water pollution
”Solid and hazardous wastes
Urbanization Has Disadvantages
” Excessive noise
” Noise pollution impairs or interferes with
hearing, and causes stress and accidents
” Local climate effects and light pollution
” Cities tend to be warmer, rainier, foggier, and
cloudier than rural areas
” Urban heat island
” Artificial light has affected some species
(disorientation, natural behavior, higher
predation levels, disrupts light sensitive cycles,
higher mortality rates).
Poverty and Urban Living
” Slums
” Areas dominated by dilapidated housing
” Squatter settlements and shantytowns
Scavenged materials, on unoccupied land
without the owner’s permission
” Terrible living conditions
Lack basic water and sanitation
High levels of pollution
Cities Can Grow Outward
or Upward
” Compact cities
” Hong Kong, China
” Tokyo, Japan
” Mass transit
” Dispersed cities
” The United States and Canada
” Car-centered cities
Pros and C
Food Resources
LECTURE 9
Why Is Good Nutrition Important?
• Many people in less-developed countries have
health problems from not getting enough food
• One in 8 people are not getting enough food (800
million people)
• Many people in more-developed countries suffer
health problems from eating too much
• Greatest obstacles to providing enough food for
everyone:
• Poverty, war, bad weather, and climate change
Chronic Hunger and Malnutrition
To maintain good health, people need:
• Macronutrients
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Fats
• Micronutrients
• Vitamins
• Examples: A, B, C, and E
• Minerals
• Examples: Iron, iodine, and calcium
Many People Suffer from Lasting Hunger and
Malnutrition
Low-income, less-developed people suffer from:
• Chronic undernutrition:
• Not enough food to meet basic energy needs
• Chronic malnutrition:
• Not enough protein or other key nutrients (eat mostly low
on the food chain – wheat, rice, and corn)
• Famine:
• Severe shortage of food
• Crop failures due to drought, flooding, or war
• Can cause mass starvation, many deaths, economic chaos,
and social disruption
Essential Micronutrients
• Two billion people deficient in one or more vitamins
and minerals
• Too little iron
• Causes anemia (fatigue and increased chance of infection)
• Iodine
• Essential for thyroid function
• Chronic lack causes stunted growth, mental retardation,
and goiter
• Irreversible brain damage
Health problems from eating too much food
People live in food deserts where diet is heavy in cheap
food filled with sugar and fats
• Overnutrition:
• Excess body fat from too many calories and too little
exercise
• Similar health problems to those who are underfed:
• Lower life expectancy
• Greater susceptibility to disease and illness
• Lower productivity and life quality
Poverty Is the Root Cause of Hunger and
Malnutrition
• 28% of world’s people struggle to survive on
USD $3.10 per day
• Poverty prevents daily access to nutritious food
• Other obstacles to food security:
• War
• Corruption
• Bad weather
• Climate change
Poverty Is the Root Cause of Hunger and
Malnutrition
• Generally, the number and percentage of people
suffering from chronic hunger has declined
since 1992
• Some continents, like Africa, still suffering
greatly
Food Production has Increased Dramatically
• Three systems produce most of our food:
• Croplands produce grains
• Primarily rice, wheat, and corn
• At least half the world’s people survive primarily by eating
three grain crops–rice, wheat, and corn–because they cannot
afford meat
• Rangelands, pastures, and feedlots produce meat and meat
products
• Fisheries and aquaculture provide fish products
• Important technological advances have increased food production:
• Irrigation, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides
Industrialized Agriculture
• Industrialized agriculture (high input):
• Heavy equipment
• Large amounts of financial capit
Plate Tectonics
Lecture 11
What Are the Earth’s
Major Geological
Hazards?
´ Dynamic processes move matter
within the earth and on its surface
´ Cause volcanic eruptions,
earthquakes, tsunamis, erosion,
and landslides
Plate Tectonics
´ Unified theory: Study the dynamic
creation, movement, and destruction
processes of plates
´ Plates: lithosphere fragments
´ Plates move in relation to each other
at varied rates
´ No major tectonic movements within
plates
´ Dynamic actions concentrated along
plate boundaries
3 major types of plate boundaries
Divergent: plates moving apart and new
lithosphere produced in mid-oceanic ridge
Convergent: plates collide, subduction
and mountain building
Transform: two plates slide past one
another
The Earth Beneath Your Feet Is Moving
Divergent Margins and the Red Sea
Figure 2.21
Seafloor Spreading
Convergent Margins
When plates collide
´Continent-Continent
´Ocean-Ocean
´Ocean-Continent
Transform Faults
Transform Margins along the Seafloor
San Andreas
fault
Driving Mechanism
´ What drives plate motion?
´ Old idea: plates are dragged atop a convecting
mantle.
´Convection does occur; not the prime driving
mechanism.
´ Modern thinking: two other forces drive plate motions.
´ Ridge-push—elevated MOR pushes lithosphere away.
´ Slab-pull—gravity pulls a subducting plate downward.
Volcanoes Release
Molten Rock from
the Earth’s Interior
´ Volcano
´Magma rising through the
lithosphere reaches the earth’s
surface through a crack (fissure)
´Eruption–release of lava, hot ash,
and gases into the environment
• ~1500 active volcanoes on Earth
• 400 erupted in the last century
• ~50 eruptions per year
• Most activity concentrated along
major plate boundaries
• Impact risks depend on the type of
volcano
Introduction
www.worldatlas.com
Viscosity of Magma and Explosiveness
Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron
Hot Spots
´ Volcanic centers with magma source
from deep mantle, perhaps near the
core-mantle boundary
´ A chain of volcanoes over a stationary
hot spot
´ The bend of a seamount chain over a
hot spot representing the change of
plate motion
What are Earthquakes?
Faulting
´Occurs when rock breaks
accompanied by displacement
´Occurs along zones of
weakness in the crust, fault
zones
´Fault lines
´Begin as sudden ruptures, but
can result in large (hundreds of
km) faults over millions of year
21
© 2011 Pearson
Education, Inc.
Faulting
´Earthquakes
´Vibration in Earth resulting from
sudden displacement along a fault
´Earthquake waves
´Energy released by earthquakes
moves in several types of seismic
waves that originate at the center of
fault motion, the origin
´Ground above origin experiences
strongest jolt, the epicenter
© 2011 Pearson
Education, Inc.
Body Waves: P and S waves
´ Body waves
´ P or primary waves
´fastest waves
´travel through solids, liquids, or gases
´com
E N E R G Y E F F I C I E N C Y &
R E N E W A B L E E N E R G Y
R E S O U R C E S
L E C T U R E 1 2
W H Y D O W E N E E D A N E W
E N E R G Y T R A N S I T I O N ?
• World is in early stages of a transition
– Move from fossil fuels to energy
efficiency and renewable energy
• Cost of generating energy with solar
energy fell by 82% between 2009 and
2015
– Wind costs fell 61%
• Costa Rica gets more than 90% of its
energy from renewable resources
W H Y I S I M P R O V I N G E N E R G Y E F F I C I E N C Y A N D
R E D U C I N G E N E R G Y W A S T E A N I M P O R TA N T E N E R G Y
R E S O U R C E ?
• Improvements in energy efficiency and
reductions in energy waste
– Could save at least one-third of the
energy used in the world
• Up to 43% of energy used in the
United States
• Many technologies exist for increasing
energy efficiency of industry, vehicles,
appliances, and buildings
W E WA S T E A LO T O F
E N E R G Y A N D M O N E Y
• Energy efficiency
– How much useful work we get from
each unit energy
• Energy conservation
– Reducing or eliminating unnecessary
energy waste
W E WA S T E A LO T O F
E N E R G Y A N D M O N E Y
• Some sources of waste
– Poorly insulated buildings
– Reliance on cars for getting around
– Huge data centers filled with electronic servers
• Use only 10% of energy they consume
– Motor vehicles with internal combustion engines
(25% efficiency)
– Nuclear, coal, and natural gas power plants (1/3rd
electricity)
I M P R O V I N G E N E R G Y
E F F I C I E N C Y I N I N D U S T R I E S
A N D U T I L I T I E S
• Cogeneration
– Combined heat and power
– Two forms of energy from same fuel source
• Replace energy-wasting electric motors
(consume 60% of electricity used)
• Recycle materials (75% less high quality energy;
40% less CO2)
• Use energy-efficient LED lighting
• Smart meter to monitor energy use
• Shut down unused computers and lights
BUILDING A SMARTER AND MORE
ENERGY-EFFICIENT ELECTRICAL GRID
• Current electrical grid system–outdated and
wasteful
• Smart grid
– Ultra-high-voltage
– Super-efficient transmission lines
– Digitally controlled
– Responds to local changes in demand and supply
– Easier to buy renewable energy
M A K I N G T R A N S P O R TAT I O N
M O R E E N E R G Y – E F F I C I E N T
• Hidden costs in gasoline
– Government subsidies and tax breaks for oil
companies
– All hidden costs add up to $12 per gallon
• Build or expand mass transit and high speed rail
• Carry more freight by rail instead of trucks
• Encourage biking by building bike lanes
S W I T C H I N G T O E N E R G Y –
E F F I C I E N T V E H I C L E S
• Gasoline-electric hybrid car
• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
• Electric vehicle with a hydrogen fuel
cell
• Car bodies made of light, composite
materials
D E S I G N I N G B U I L D I N G S
T H AT S AV E E N E R G Y A N D
M O N E Y
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